The Library

Research Encyclopedia

A plain-English reference for every compound we carry — with the backstory of who discovered it, how it works at the molecular level, and the peer-reviewed literature behind it. Written for researchers and curious readers alike. Nothing here constitutes medical or dosing guidance.

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36 compounds · 35 citations

Weight Management· hGH Fragment 176-191

AOD9604

The fat-oxidizing tail of growth hormone.

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In Plain English

AOD9604 is a modified 16-amino-acid fragment from the C-terminus of human growth hormone. Researchers isolated this piece to study the fat-metabolism effects of GH without the parts that raise IGF-1 or affect blood sugar.

Discovery & Backstory

Developed in the 1990s at Monash University in Australia. The team hypothesized that different regions of the growth-hormone molecule controlled different effects, and identified the C-terminal fragment as the one linked to lipolysis.

Mechanism of Action

In preclinical models AOD9604 appears to stimulate lipolysis (fat breakdown) and inhibit lipogenesis (fat storage) through β3-adrenergic pathways, without engaging the GH receptor to elevate IGF-1 or affect glucose regulation.

Studied In

Adipocyte lipolysis and β3-adrenergic signaling
Comparative metabolic profile vs. full-length GH
Cartilage-repair preclinical research

Molecular Data

Formula:: C78H123N23O23S2
MW:: 1815.09 g/mol
Length:: 16 aa
CAS:: 221231-10-3
Sequence:: YLRIVQCRSVEGSCGF

Peer-Reviewed Citations

The lipolytic and antilipogenic activity of the C-terminal fragment of human growth hormone (hGH 176-191)
Ng FM, et al. · Horm Res · 2000 · PMID 10971018

Blends

Blend BPC-157 + TB-500

The classic tissue-repair reference blend.

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In Plain English

This blend combines two of the most-studied peptides in preclinical tissue-repair research. BPC-157 is investigated for its effects on the gut, tendons, and vasculature; TB-500 is studied for cell migration and cardiac repair. Researchers use them together to study complementary signaling.

Discovery & Backstory

The pairing emerged organically from the peptide-research community throughout the 2010s as parallel study of both compounds — one from Sikirić's group in Croatia, the other from Goldstein's group in the US — showed distinct but compatible repair pathways.

Mechanism of Action

BPC-157 supports angiogenic signaling and growth-factor upregulation at injury sites; TB-500 promotes cell migration and cytoskeletal reorganization. In preclinical research they engage separate but converging repair pathways.

Studied In

Comparative and combined tissue-repair signaling
Angiogenesis + cell-migration crosstalk
Preclinical injury-recovery models

Blends

Blend CJC-1295 no DAC + Ipamorelin

The GHRH + ghrelin-receptor reference pair.

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In Plain English

This pairs a GHRH analog (CJC-1295 no DAC) with a selective ghrelin-receptor agonist (Ipamorelin). Researchers study this combination because the two peptides act on different pituitary pathways that naturally work together to release growth hormone.

Discovery & Backstory

The GHRH + GHS pairing has been a research staple since Cyril Bowers demonstrated in the 1980s that GHRH and GH-releasing peptides act synergistically on the pituitary. This blend became the canonical modern version of that pairing.

Mechanism of Action

CJC no-DAC activates the GHRH receptor while Ipamorelin activates the ghrelin (GHS-R1a) receptor. Simultaneous activation of both pathways produces a larger, more physiologic GH pulse than either alone in preclinical studies.

Studied In

Synergistic somatotroph activation
Pulsatile GH-release pharmacology
Comparative GHRH + GHS receptor studies

Blends

Blend Selank + Semax

The Russian regulatory-peptide pair.

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In Plain English

This blend combines the two most-studied peptides in the Russian regulatory-peptide research tradition — one investigated for anxiolytic pathway signaling, the other for cognitive and neuroprotective signaling. Together they represent the pairing most commonly studied in that literature.

Discovery & Backstory

Both peptides emerged from Ivan Ashmarin's and Nikolay Myasoedov's programs at Moscow State University and the Russian Academy of Sciences during the 1980s-90s pursuit of small, brain-active regulatory peptides.

Mechanism of Action

Selank modulates GABAergic tone and BDNF; Semax upregulates BDNF and NGF and influences dopamine turnover. The two engage overlapping but distinct neurochemical pathways in preclinical CNS research.

Studied In

Combined BDNF/NGF signaling
Cognitive + anxiolytic pathway crosstalk
Russian regulatory-peptide literature

Blends

Blend Tesamorelin + Ipamorelin

The stabilized GHRH + ghrelin-agonist pair.

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In Plain English

This blend pairs Tesamorelin — a stabilized, longer-acting GHRH analog — with the selective ghrelin-receptor agonist Ipamorelin. It's a more research-heavy version of the classic CJC + Ipamorelin pairing, using the GHRH analog with the most clinical-trial literature behind it.

Discovery & Backstory

Combines two of the best-characterized peptides in the growth-hormone axis: Theratechnologies' Tesamorelin and Novo Nordisk's Ipamorelin. The pairing follows the same GHRH + GHS logic pioneered in Bowers' original synergy research.

Mechanism of Action

Tesamorelin drives sustained GHRH-receptor activation; Ipamorelin selectively activates GHS-R1a. The combination models parallel activation of both pituitary pathways under stabilized pharmacokinetics.

Studied In

Sustained GHRH + GHS synergy
Body-composition and IGF-1 endpoints
Comparative stability studies

Healing & Recovery· Body Protection Compound 157

BPC-157

The gut-derived repair peptide.

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In Plain English

BPC-157 is a short chain of 15 amino acids originally identified in human gastric juice. In preclinical models it is one of the most studied peptides for tissue repair — tendons, ligaments, muscle, and gut lining — because it appears to help the body's existing healing machinery work faster and more completely.

Discovery & Backstory

Isolated in the early 1990s by Croatian researcher Predrag Sikirić and colleagues at the University of Zagreb, BPC-157 was identified as a fragment of a larger 'body protection compound' naturally present in the stomach. Decades of animal studies followed, catalogued across hundreds of PubMed entries.

Mechanism of Action

In animal models BPC-157 has been observed to modulate the nitric oxide pathway, upregulate growth-factor receptors (particularly VEGFR2), and support new blood-vessel formation (angiogenesis) around injured tissue. This appears to accelerate the recruitment of fibroblasts and the deposition of collagen at wound sites.

Studied In

Tendon, ligament, and muscle-repair signaling
Gastrointestinal-lining and ulcer models
Angiogenesis and vascular repair
Neuroprotective pathway studies

Molecular Data

Formula:: C62H98N16O22
MW:: 1419.53 g/mol
Length:: 15 aa
CAS:: 137525-51-0
Sequence:: GEPPPGKPADDAGLV

Peer-Reviewed Citations

Stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157: novel therapy in gastrointestinal tract
Sikiric P, et al. · Curr Pharm Des · 2011 · PMID 21443489
BPC 157 accelerates healing of transected rat Achilles tendon
Krivic A, et al. · J Orthop Res · 2006 · PMID 16960916
Cytoprotective effect of BPC 157 on ulcerative colitis in rats
Sikiric P, et al. · Eur J Pharmacol · 2013 · PMID 23994171

Growth & Performance· Modified GRF (1-29)

CJC-1295 no DAC

The short-acting GHRH analog.

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In Plain English

CJC-1295 (no DAC) is a synthetic version of the first 29 amino acids of GHRH — the hormone your hypothalamus sends to the pituitary to trigger growth-hormone release. Small modifications make it more stable than natural GHRH while preserving the body's natural pulsatile release pattern.

Discovery & Backstory

Developed at ConjuChem in the 2000s. The 'no DAC' version omits the drug-affinity-complex linker of its long-acting sibling, giving researchers a shorter-acting analog for studying pulsatile GH release.

Mechanism of Action

Binds the GHRH receptor on pituitary somatotrophs, stimulating natural GH release in physiologic pulses. Its short half-life means downstream signaling closely mirrors the body's own rhythm.

Studied In

Pulsatile GH release and pituitary-axis signaling
IGF-1 modulation and downstream growth pathways
Somatotroph pharmacology

Molecular Data

Formula:: C152H252N44O42
MW:: 3367.9 g/mol
Length:: 29 aa

Peer-Reviewed Citations

GHRH analogs and pulsatile growth hormone release
Teichman SL, et al. · J Clin Endocrinol Metab · 2006 · PMID 16537685

Other Peptides· Delta Sleep-Inducing Peptide

DSIP

The delta-sleep signaling peptide.

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In Plain English

DSIP is a nine-amino-acid peptide first isolated from cerebral blood of rabbits during periods of induced deep sleep. It's been studied for decades for its unclear but consistent association with slow-wave (delta) sleep patterns.

Discovery & Backstory

Isolated in 1974 by Marcel Monnier and Guido Schoenenberger at the University of Basel while investigating whether a chemical mediator could be transferred between sleeping and awake animals. The 'delta sleep' name reflects the EEG pattern it appeared to promote.

Mechanism of Action

Despite fifty years of study, DSIP's exact receptor remains unidentified. In animal models it appears to influence delta-wave activity in EEG recordings, modulate ACTH release, and interact with opioid and GABAergic systems without acting as a classical sedative.

Studied In

Slow-wave-sleep EEG studies
Stress-hormone and HPA-axis modulation
Circadian-rhythm research

Molecular Data

Formula:: C35H48N10O15
MW:: 848.81 g/mol
Length:: 9 aa
CAS:: 62568-57-4
Sequence:: WAGGDASGE

Peer-Reviewed Citations

Delta sleep-inducing peptide (DSIP): a review
Graf MV, Kastin AJ · Peptides · 1986 · PMID 3532042

Longevity & Cognitive· Epitalon / AEDG

Epithalon

The pineal tetrapeptide.

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In Plain English

Epithalon is a four-amino-acid peptide (Ala-Glu-Asp-Gly) modeled on epithalamin, a pineal-gland extract studied for its effects on aging markers. It's one of the most studied short peptides in the Russian bioregulator research tradition.

Discovery & Backstory

Developed in the 1980s by Vladimir Khavinson at the St. Petersburg Institute of Bioregulation and Gerontology. Khavinson's team pursued the hypothesis that specific short peptides could 'regulate' gene expression associated with tissue-specific aging.

Mechanism of Action

In preclinical models Epithalon has been observed to interact with telomerase activity, modulate melatonin rhythms, and influence gene expression in the pineal gland — though the exact receptor and binding sites remain an active research question.

Studied In

Telomerase-activity research in cell culture
Melatonin and circadian-rhythm studies
Longevity and cellular-aging biomarkers

Molecular Data

Formula:: C14H22N4O9
MW:: 390.35 g/mol
Length:: 4 aa
CAS:: 307297-39-8
Sequence:: AEDG

Peer-Reviewed Citations

Peptide Epithalon activates chromatin at the old age
Khavinson VK, et al. · Neuro Endocrinol Lett · 2003 · PMID 14523353

Healing & Recovery· Copper Tripeptide-1

GHK-Cu

The copper peptide behind skin science.

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In Plain English

GHK-Cu is a naturally occurring three-amino-acid peptide bound to a copper ion. It circulates in plasma and drops sharply as we age. In laboratory research it is one of the most studied peptides for skin quality, collagen production, and dermal renewal.

Discovery & Backstory

Discovered by Dr. Loren Pickart in 1973 while studying why older serum failed to support liver-tissue growth as effectively as young serum. He isolated the tripeptide-copper complex and traced its regenerative activity to this small molecule.

Mechanism of Action

GHK-Cu appears to upregulate genes associated with tissue remodeling and antioxidant defense, stimulate fibroblast production of collagen and glycosaminoglycans, and modulate copper-dependent enzymes involved in wound repair.

Studied In

Dermal remodeling and collagen synthesis
Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory signaling
Hair-follicle and stem-cell studies
Gene-expression profiling of aging skin

Molecular Data

Formula:: C14H24N6O4·Cu
MW:: 402.92 g/mol
Length:: 3 aa
CAS:: 89030-95-5
Sequence:: GHK

Peer-Reviewed Citations

GHK peptide as a natural modulator of multiple cellular pathways in skin regeneration
Pickart L, et al. · Biomed Res Int · 2015 · PMID 26236730
GHK-Cu increases collagen and glycosaminoglycan synthesis
Maquart FX, et al. · FEBS Lett · 1988 · PMID 3181439

Other Peptides

GLOW

The dermal-signaling reference blend.

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In Plain English

GLOW combines GHK-Cu, BPC-157, and TB-500 — three peptides individually studied in dermal-remodeling and collagen-synthesis research. It is a comparative reference blend for laboratory work on skin-quality and dermal-matrix pathways.

Discovery & Backstory

The blend follows from decades of parallel research on each component: Pickart's copper-peptide work, Sikirić's BPC-157 studies, and Goldstein's TB-4 program. Researchers use it as a single reference for studying convergent dermal signaling.

Mechanism of Action

GHK-Cu drives collagen and glycosaminoglycan synthesis; BPC-157 supports angiogenic and growth-factor signaling; TB-4 modulates cell migration and inflammation. In preclinical research they engage complementary dermal-repair pathways.

Studied In

Convergent dermal-matrix signaling
Collagen and GAG synthesis
Angiogenesis-driven skin research

Longevity & Cognitive· GSH

Glutathione

The master antioxidant tripeptide.

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In Plain English

Glutathione is a three-amino-acid molecule (glutamate, cysteine, glycine) that every cell in your body produces to neutralize oxidative damage. It is often called the 'master antioxidant' because it recycles other antioxidants and drives the liver's primary detoxification pathway.

Discovery & Backstory

First isolated by Frederick Gowland Hopkins in 1921 at Cambridge. He initially thought it was a dipeptide; the correct tripeptide structure was worked out in the late 1920s. It has been studied continuously ever since.

Mechanism of Action

The reactive thiol group on its cysteine residue directly neutralizes reactive oxygen species and conjugates toxins in the liver for excretion. It also serves as a cofactor for glutathione peroxidase and reduces oxidized vitamin C and E back to their active forms.

Studied In

Redox balance and oxidative-stress signaling
Hepatic detoxification pathways
Cellular immune-function research

Molecular Data

Formula:: C10H17N3O6S
MW:: 307.32 g/mol
CAS:: 70-18-8

Peer-Reviewed Citations

Glutathione: overview of its protective roles, measurement, and biosynthesis
Forman HJ, et al. · Mol Aspects Med · 2009 · PMID 18796312

Other Peptides· Long R3 IGF-1

IGF-1 LR3

The long-acting IGF-1 analog.

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In Plain English

IGF-1 LR3 is an engineered version of insulin-like growth factor-1 with a chain of 13 extra amino acids and one substitution that prevents it from binding the proteins that normally shorten its lifespan. This gives researchers a much more stable form of IGF-1 to study.

Discovery & Backstory

Engineered in the 1980s for laboratory cell-culture research where standard IGF-1 was too rapidly bound and cleared. It quickly became the workhorse IGF analog for studying growth-factor signaling in vitro.

Mechanism of Action

Binds the IGF-1 receptor with high affinity but is largely 'invisible' to IGF-binding proteins, so it remains active far longer than native IGF-1. Downstream signaling engages PI3K/Akt and MAPK pathways controlling cell growth and protein synthesis.

Studied In

Protein-synthesis and cell-proliferation pathways
IGF-receptor pharmacology
Comparative studies vs. native IGF-1

Molecular Data

Formula:: C400H625N111O115S9
MW:: 9117.62 g/mol
Length:: 83 aa

Peer-Reviewed Citations

IGF-1: molecular mechanisms and clinical applications
Le Roith D, et al. · Endocr Rev · 2001 · PMID 11294822

Growth & Performance· GH Secretagogue

Ipamorelin

The clean ghrelin-receptor secretagogue.

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In Plain English

Ipamorelin is a small synthetic peptide that mimics ghrelin at its receptor to trigger GH release. Unlike earlier GH secretagogues, it does this without significantly raising cortisol or prolactin — earning it the nickname 'clean' in the research literature.

Discovery & Backstory

Developed in the late 1990s by Novo Nordisk during a broader program to design selective growth-hormone secretagogues. Published in the European Journal of Endocrinology in 1998, it was noted for its receptor selectivity.

Mechanism of Action

Selectively agonizes the ghrelin receptor (GHS-R1a) on the pituitary, stimulating GH release. Because it doesn't cross-react meaningfully with ACTH or prolactin pathways, downstream stress-hormone activation stays minimal in preclinical models.

Studied In

Selective GHS-R1a signaling
Stacking studies with GHRH analogs
Cortisol/prolactin selectivity profiling

Molecular Data

Formula:: C38H49N9O5
MW:: 711.85 g/mol
Length:: 5 aa
CAS:: 170851-70-4
Sequence:: AibHis-D-2NalD-PheLys

Peer-Reviewed Citations

Ipamorelin, the first selective growth hormone secretagogue
Raun K, et al. · Eur J Endocrinol · 1998 · PMID 9764438

Sexual & Mood· Metastin (45-54)

Kisspeptin-10

The master switch of reproduction.

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In Plain English

Kisspeptin is the upstream signal that tells the hypothalamus to release the hormone that triggers the entire reproductive axis. Without it, puberty doesn't happen. Its discovery reshaped modern reproductive endocrinology.

Discovery & Backstory

The KISS1 gene was identified in 1996 in Hershey, Pennsylvania — hence the name — during cancer-metastasis research. Its role in reproduction was discovered accidentally in 2003 when researchers noted that mutations in its receptor caused failure of puberty.

Mechanism of Action

Binds the GPR54 (KISS1R) receptor on GnRH neurons in the hypothalamus, triggering the release of gonadotropin-releasing hormone. This cascades into LH and FSH release from the pituitary and downstream sex-steroid production.

Studied In

GnRH-neuron activation and puberty research
Reproductive-axis feedback studies
Fertility and hypothalamic-signaling models

Molecular Data

Formula:: C63H83N17O14
MW:: 1302.48 g/mol
Length:: 10 aa
Sequence:: YNWNSFGLRF

Peer-Reviewed Citations

Kisspeptin — a novel regulator of reproductive function
Roa J, et al. · Front Neuroendocrinol · 2008 · PMID 18054384

Other Peptides

KLOW

The mucosal-integrity reference blend.

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In Plain English

KLOW combines KPV, GHK-Cu, Larazotide, and BPC-157 — four peptides individually studied for their roles in epithelial-barrier integrity, inflammatory signaling, and tissue-recovery pathways. It's a research reference for studies of mucosal and epithelial biology.

Discovery & Backstory

The blend consolidates four independent research programs — melanocortin (KPV), copper-peptide (GHK-Cu), tight-junction (Larazotide), and gastric-repair (BPC-157) — into a single reference for laboratory work on epithelial systems.

Mechanism of Action

KPV downregulates NF-κB inflammatory signaling; GHK-Cu drives connective-tissue remodeling; Larazotide modulates tight-junction (zonulin) signaling; BPC-157 supports gastric and epithelial repair. Together they cover multiple convergent barrier-integrity pathways in preclinical research.

Studied In

Epithelial-barrier integrity models
Tight-junction and zonulin signaling
Combined anti-inflammatory + repair pathways

Healing & Recovery· α-MSH (11-13)

KPV

The three-amino-acid tail of α-MSH.

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In Plain English

KPV is the last three amino acids of alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH), a natural anti-inflammatory hormone. Researchers use this short fragment to study anti-inflammatory activity without the pigmentation effects of the parent hormone.

Discovery & Backstory

Identified in the 1990s during work on the anti-inflammatory arm of the melanocortin system. Scientists found that KPV retained much of α-MSH's ability to calm inflammatory signaling while being far simpler to synthesize and study.

Mechanism of Action

In preclinical models KPV appears to enter cells and downregulate NF-κB signaling — a master switch for inflammatory gene expression — reducing cytokines such as TNF-α and IL-1β at their source.

Studied In

Gut-mucosa and colitis models
Skin-inflammation and eczema-model research
Cytokine-signaling attenuation

Molecular Data

Formula:: C19H27N5O4
MW:: 405.45 g/mol
Length:: 3 aa
Sequence:: KPV

Peer-Reviewed Citations

The C-terminal α-MSH fragment KPV: anti-inflammatory activity
Getting SJ, et al. · J Immunol · 2003 · PMID 12594268

Other Peptides· Cathelicidin / CAP-18

LL-37 (CAP-18)

The human host-defense peptide.

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In Plain English

LL-37 is the only cathelicidin the human body produces — a natural antimicrobial peptide that acts as a first line of defense on skin, in the gut, and in the lungs. It is one of the most-studied peptides in innate-immunity research.

Discovery & Backstory

First characterized in the mid-1990s from human neutrophils and epithelial tissue. Named for its 37 amino acids beginning with two leucines (L-L). Interest exploded when researchers realized it directly kills bacteria while also modulating immune signaling.

Mechanism of Action

LL-37 disrupts bacterial membranes through electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions, while separately engaging formyl-peptide and P2X7 receptors on immune cells — bridging antimicrobial and immunomodulatory activity in one molecule.

Studied In

Antimicrobial and antibiofilm research
Wound-healing and epithelial repair
Immunomodulation of neutrophils and macrophages
Viral and inflammatory-disease models

Molecular Data

Formula:: C205H340N60O53
MW:: 4493.28 g/mol
Length:: 37 aa
Sequence:: LLGDFFRKSKEKIGKEFKRIVQRIKDFLRNLVPRTES

Peer-Reviewed Citations

The human antimicrobial peptide LL-37 and mechanisms of host defense
Vandamme D, et al. · Cell Immunol · 2012 · PMID 22664135

Sexual & Mood· Melanotan II

Melanotan 2

The melanocortin-receptor pigmentation peptide.

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In Plain English

Melanotan II is a synthetic analog of α-MSH — the hormone that tells melanocytes in your skin to produce pigment. It's been widely studied in melanocortin-receptor pharmacology and skin-pigmentation research.

Discovery & Backstory

Developed at the University of Arizona in the 1980s by Victor Hruby and Mac Hadley as a research tool for melanocortin-receptor pharmacology. Related work in the same lab eventually produced PT-141.

Mechanism of Action

Non-selectively agonizes multiple melanocortin receptors, most notably MC1R (in melanocytes, driving eumelanin production) and MC4R (in the CNS, influencing appetite and arousal pathways).

Studied In

Melanocortin-receptor subtype pharmacology
Melanogenesis and MC1R signaling
Appetite and CNS melanocortin research

Molecular Data

Formula:: C50H69N15O9
MW:: 1024.18 g/mol
Length:: 7 aa
CAS:: 121062-08-6

Peer-Reviewed Citations

Melanocortin peptides and receptors in the CNS
Wikberg JE, et al. · Pharmacol Res · 2000 · PMID 10727425

Other Peptides· Mitochondrial ORF of the 12S rRNA-c

MOTS-C

The peptide encoded inside your mitochondria.

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In Plain English

MOTS-c is remarkable because it isn't encoded in the nucleus of the cell like most proteins — it's encoded directly in mitochondrial DNA. This makes it a signal from the mitochondria to the rest of the cell about energy status.

Discovery & Backstory

Discovered in 2015 by Changhan David Lee and Pinchas Cohen at USC. Its identification opened an entirely new class of peptides — mitochondrial-derived peptides — that suggest mitochondria communicate biochemically with the nucleus.

Mechanism of Action

MOTS-c appears to activate AMPK, the cellular energy sensor, promoting glucose uptake and mitochondrial biogenesis. In animal models it has been shown to improve insulin sensitivity and mimic some effects of exercise at the metabolic level.

Studied In

AMPK activation and metabolic signaling
Insulin sensitivity in aging models
Mitochondrial-nuclear crosstalk
Exercise-mimetic pathway research

Molecular Data

Formula:: C74H119N23O16S
MW:: 1626.94 g/mol
Length:: 16 aa
Sequence:: MRWQEMGYIFYPRKLR

Peer-Reviewed Citations

The mitochondrial-derived peptide MOTS-c promotes metabolic homeostasis
Lee C, et al. · Cell Metab · 2015 · PMID 25738459

Longevity & Cognitive· Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide

NAD+

The cellular energy coenzyme.

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In Plain English

NAD+ isn't a peptide — it's a coenzyme every cell in your body uses to run metabolism. Its levels drop steadily with age, which is why it has become one of the most-studied molecules in longevity research over the past two decades.

Discovery & Backstory

First isolated in 1906 by Harden and Young while studying fermentation. Its central role in cellular metabolism earned multiple Nobel Prizes across the 20th century. Modern interest surged after David Sinclair's lab at Harvard published on NAD's connection to sirtuins and aging.

Mechanism of Action

Serves as a coenzyme for hundreds of redox reactions and is a required substrate for sirtuins (SIRT1-7), PARPs, and CD38 — all involved in DNA repair, mitochondrial biogenesis, and inflammatory signaling. Restoring NAD+ levels appears to reactivate these pathways in aged tissue.

Studied In

Sirtuin activation and gene-expression studies
Mitochondrial biogenesis
DNA-repair and PARP research
Age-related metabolic-decline models

Molecular Data

Formula:: C21H27N7O14P2
MW:: 663.43 g/mol
CAS:: 53-84-9

Peer-Reviewed Citations

NAD+ intermediates: the biology and therapeutic potential of NMN and NR
Rajman L, et al. · Cell Metab · 2018 · PMID 29514064

Sexual & Mood· The 'bonding' peptide

Oxytocin

The social-bonding hormone.

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In Plain English

Oxytocin is a nine-amino-acid peptide made in the hypothalamus and released by the pituitary. It's most famous for its role in childbirth and social bonding — but its receptor is found throughout the brain, gut, heart, and immune system.

Discovery & Backstory

Isolated by Sir Henry Dale in 1906 and later synthesized by Vincent du Vigneaud in 1953 — earning him the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, as it was the first polypeptide hormone ever synthesized. Modern research has vastly expanded its known roles beyond reproduction.

Mechanism of Action

Activates the oxytocin receptor (OXTR), a G-protein coupled receptor, in the brain (amygdala, hypothalamus, nucleus accumbens) and peripheral tissues. Downstream effects include modulation of stress signaling, social-recognition circuits, and smooth-muscle contraction.

Studied In

Social-cognition and bonding research
HPA-axis and stress-response modulation
Autism-spectrum and prosocial-behavior studies

Molecular Data

Formula:: C43H66N12O12S2
MW:: 1007.19 g/mol
Length:: 9 aa
CAS:: 50-56-6
Sequence:: CYIQNCPLG

Peer-Reviewed Citations

Oxytocin and social bonding
Feldman R · Trends Cogn Sci · 2012 · PMID 22406290

Growth & Performance· Pegylated Mechano Growth Factor

PEG-MGF

The muscle-repair splice variant of IGF-1.

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In Plain English

MGF is a special splice variant of IGF-1 that muscle tissue produces after mechanical stress — like exercise or injury. The pegylated version has a small polymer attached to slow its breakdown, extending its activity for research use.

Discovery & Backstory

Discovered by Prof. Geoffrey Goldspink at University College London while studying why muscle responds so specifically to loading. His team traced the response to a unique IGF-1 splice product they termed 'mechano-growth factor.'

Mechanism of Action

In animal studies MGF activates satellite cells — the stem cells of skeletal muscle — recruiting them to repair damaged fibers. It appears to act through a distinct receptor mechanism from standard IGF-1.

Studied In

Satellite-cell activation and myogenesis
Muscle-injury recovery models
Post-exercise splice-variant expression

Molecular Data

MW:: 5980 g/mol
Length:: 24 aa

Peer-Reviewed Citations

Mechano growth factor: a putative product of IGF-1 signaling in skeletal muscle
Yang SY, Goldspink G · FEBS Lett · 2002 · PMID 12419528

Sexual & Mood· Bremelanotide

PT-141

The melanocortin-based libido peptide.

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In Plain English

PT-141 is a synthetic analog of α-MSH that was originally being studied as a sunless-tanning agent, until researchers noticed a very different effect: it activated central nervous-system pathways involved in sexual arousal, independent of the vascular pathway targeted by PDE5 inhibitors.

Discovery & Backstory

Derived from Melanotan II research at the University of Arizona in the 1990s. Palatin Technologies pursued it specifically for its central-arousal effect, and it was eventually approved as Bremelanotide for a specific clinical indication.

Mechanism of Action

Agonizes the MC4 receptor in the central nervous system, engaging hypothalamic pathways associated with sexual arousal. Because the mechanism is neurological rather than vascular, it acts independently of blood-flow modulators.

Studied In

MC4R central-arousal signaling
Hypothalamic arousal-circuit research
Comparative pharmacology with PDE5 pathways

Molecular Data

Formula:: C50H68N14O10
MW:: 1025.19 g/mol
Length:: 7 aa
CAS:: 189691-06-3

Peer-Reviewed Citations

Bremelanotide: an overview of clinical trials
Kingsberg SA, et al. · Womens Health (Lond) · 2020 · PMID 32584654

Weight Management· GLP-1 / GIP / Glucagon Triple Agonist

Retatrutide

The triple receptor next-generation agonist.

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In Plain English

Retatrutide takes the twincretin idea one step further: it activates three receptors — GLP-1, GIP, and glucagon — simultaneously. The addition of glucagon activity is intended to raise energy expenditure alongside the appetite and glucose effects of the other two.

Discovery & Backstory

Introduced by Eli Lilly in Phase 2 trials published in the New England Journal of Medicine in 2023. It represents the current cutting edge of the 'poly-agonist' class first proposed by endocrinologist Matthias Tschöp.

Mechanism of Action

Simultaneous activation of GLP-1 and GIP amplifies incretin-driven insulin and satiety pathways, while controlled glucagon-receptor activity engages hepatic energy expenditure and lipid mobilization.

Studied In

Triple-agonist receptor pharmacology
Energy-expenditure and thermogenic signaling
Hepatic-fat and liver-metabolism studies
Comparative efficacy vs. single/dual agonists

Molecular Data

Formula:: C221H343N51O64
MW:: 4731.53 g/mol
Length:: 39 aa
CAS:: 2381089-83-2

Peer-Reviewed Citations

Triple hormone receptor agonist retatrutide for obesity — a phase 2 trial
Jastreboff AM, et al. · N Engl J Med · 2023 · PMID 37356241

Longevity & Cognitive· TP-7

Selank

The Russian anxiolytic heptapeptide.

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In Plain English

Selank is a seven-amino-acid analog of tuftsin — a natural immune peptide — modified with additional amino acids for stability. It was developed as a research tool for studying anxiety-related brain signaling without traditional benzodiazepine mechanisms.

Discovery & Backstory

Developed at the Institute of Molecular Genetics of the Russian Academy of Sciences in the 1990s. Alongside Semax, Selank is part of the Russian 'regulatory peptide' research tradition that pursued small brain-active peptides as targeted alternatives to classical CNS drugs.

Mechanism of Action

In animal models Selank appears to increase brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression, modulate GABAergic tone, and influence serotonin turnover — producing anxiolytic-like effects in behavioral models without the sedation or dependence profile of benzodiazepines.

Studied In

GABAergic and BDNF signaling
Anxiolytic behavioral models
Immune-nervous system crosstalk

Molecular Data

Formula:: C33H57N11O9
MW:: 751.87 g/mol
Length:: 7 aa
CAS:: 129954-34-3
Sequence:: TKPRPGP

Peer-Reviewed Citations

The anxiolytic effect of the synthetic peptide Selank
Kozlovskii II, Danchev ND · Neurosci Behav Physiol · 2003 · PMID 14535158

Weight Management· GLP-1 Receptor Agonist

Semaglutide

The long-acting GLP-1 analog.

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In Plain English

Semaglutide is a synthetic version of GLP-1, a hormone your gut releases after meals to signal fullness and regulate blood sugar. It has been engineered to last for days rather than minutes, and is one of the most extensively studied compounds in modern metabolic research.

Discovery & Backstory

Developed at Novo Nordisk in the 2010s as an evolution of earlier GLP-1 analogs like liraglutide. The structural addition of a fatty-acid chain allowed it to bind serum albumin, giving it a week-long half-life. Trial data was published in landmark New England Journal of Medicine studies.

Mechanism of Action

Binds and activates the GLP-1 receptor in the pancreas, brain, and gut. This delays gastric emptying, enhances glucose-dependent insulin release, suppresses glucagon, and acts on hypothalamic centers involved in appetite regulation.

Studied In

Appetite regulation and satiety signaling
Glucose-dependent insulinotropic pathways
Cardiovascular and metabolic-outcome studies
Neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory research

Molecular Data

Formula:: C187H291N45O59
MW:: 4113.58 g/mol
Length:: 31 aa
CAS:: 910463-68-2

Peer-Reviewed Citations

Once-weekly semaglutide in adults with overweight or obesity
Wilding JPH, et al. · N Engl J Med · 2021 · PMID 33567185
GLP-1 receptor agonists and mechanisms of appetite regulation
Drucker DJ · Cell Metab · 2018 · PMID 29617641

Longevity & Cognitive· ACTH (4-10) analog

Semax

The Russian nootropic heptapeptide.

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In Plain English

Semax is a seven-amino-acid peptide based on a fragment of ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone), but engineered without the hormonal activity. It has been widely studied in Russia for cognitive-pathway signaling and neuroprotective research.

Discovery & Backstory

Developed in the 1980s at Moscow State University by Ivan Ashmarin's group as part of the same regulatory-peptide program that produced Selank. It has been in continuous research use in Russia for decades.

Mechanism of Action

In animal models Semax appears to upregulate BDNF and nerve growth factor (NGF), influence dopamine and serotonin turnover, and modulate the melanocortin system — producing pro-cognitive and neuroprotective signals across multiple pathways.

Studied In

BDNF and NGF gene-expression studies
Ischemic and neurodegenerative preclinical models
Attention and cognitive-behavior research

Molecular Data

Formula:: C37H51N9O10S
MW:: 813.92 g/mol
Length:: 7 aa
CAS:: 80714-61-0
Sequence:: MEHFPGP

Peer-Reviewed Citations

The heptapeptide Semax: neuroprotective and cognitive-enhancing properties
Ashmarin IP, et al. · Neurosci Behav Physiol · 1997 · PMID 9353786

Growth & Performance· GHRH (1-29) / GRF 1-29

Sermorelin

The classic GHRH analog.

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In Plain English

Sermorelin is the 29-amino-acid active core of natural GHRH. It was the first synthetic GHRH analog studied in humans and remains a foundational reference compound in growth-hormone research.

Discovery & Backstory

Developed in the 1970s and 1980s after Roger Guillemin's Nobel-Prize-winning work isolating GHRH. Sermorelin was approved for diagnostic use in pediatric growth-hormone research and became the archetype for later analogs.

Mechanism of Action

Directly activates the pituitary GHRH receptor to stimulate endogenous GH release in a pulsatile, feedback-regulated manner — preserving the body's natural somatotroph rhythm rather than replacing GH exogenously.

Studied In

GH-deficiency diagnostic research
Pulsatile-release physiology
Age-related somatotroph decline studies

Molecular Data

Formula:: C149H246N44O42S
MW:: 3357.88 g/mol
Length:: 29 aa
CAS:: 86168-78-7

Peer-Reviewed Citations

Sermorelin: a review of its use in the diagnosis and treatment of children with idiopathic growth hormone deficiency
Prakash A, Goa KL · BioDrugs · 1999 · PMID 18034521

Longevity & Cognitive· Elamipretide / MTP-131

SS-31 (Elamipretide)

The mitochondria-targeting peptide.

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In Plain English

SS-31 is a small four-amino-acid peptide that specifically concentrates in the inner mitochondrial membrane, where energy production happens. Researchers designed it to study whether protecting mitochondria at the source could improve cellular energy in aged or diseased tissue.

Discovery & Backstory

Developed by Dr. Hazel Szeto at Cornell in the 2000s as part of the 'Szeto-Schiller' peptide series designed to target mitochondria. It later entered clinical trials under the name Elamipretide.

Mechanism of Action

SS-31 binds cardiolipin, a phospholipid unique to the inner mitochondrial membrane, stabilizing electron-transport-chain complexes and reducing electron leak. This appears to improve ATP output and reduce reactive oxygen species production in stressed mitochondria.

Studied In

Cardiolipin and inner-membrane stabilization
Age-related and cardiovascular mitochondrial dysfunction
ATP output and oxidative-stress reduction

Molecular Data

Formula:: C32H49N9O5
MW:: 639.79 g/mol
Length:: 4 aa
CAS:: 736992-21-5

Peer-Reviewed Citations

Elamipretide (SS-31) targets mitochondrial cardiolipin
Szeto HH · Br J Pharmacol · 2014 · PMID 24494685

Longevity & Cognitive· Thymosin Alpha-1 / Zadaxin

TA-1 (Thymosin Alpha-1)

The immune-modulating thymus peptide.

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In Plain English

Thymosin Alpha-1 is a 28-amino-acid peptide originally isolated from the thymus, the small gland behind the sternum where T-cells mature. It has been studied extensively in the context of immune-function research and is one of the more clinically-investigated peptides in the world.

Discovery & Backstory

Isolated by Allan Goldstein in 1977 during systematic work on thymic peptides. It later became commercially known as Zadaxin and has been studied in dozens of clinical trials for immune-related applications across multiple countries.

Mechanism of Action

TA-1 appears to enhance the maturation and function of T-cells and dendritic cells, modulate cytokine production, and act as a natural agonist of TLR9 — a pattern-recognition receptor central to innate immunity.

Studied In

T-cell maturation and function
TLR9 innate-immune signaling
Antiviral and adjunct-immunotherapy research

Molecular Data

Formula:: C129H215N33O55
MW:: 3108.32 g/mol
Length:: 28 aa
CAS:: 62304-98-7

Peer-Reviewed Citations

Thymosin alpha 1: past clinical experience and future promise
Goldstein AL, Badamchian M · Expert Opin Biol Ther · 2004 · PMID 15268672

Healing & Recovery· Thymosin Beta-4

TB-500

The wound-healing peptide from the thymus.

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In Plain English

TB-500 is a synthetic form of Thymosin Beta-4, a peptide naturally produced in nearly every cell in the body but concentrated in wound fluid and platelets. In animal research it has been studied for how it supports cell migration to injury sites — essentially helping cells 'find' the wound and start rebuilding.

Discovery & Backstory

Thymosin Beta-4 was first isolated from calf thymus glands in 1981 by Allan Goldstein at the George Washington University. It later drew attention when researchers noticed elevated levels in areas of active tissue repair — including the heart after myocardial injury.

Mechanism of Action

TB-500 binds actin, a key structural protein inside cells, and appears to influence how cells reorganize their internal skeleton to migrate. In cardiac injury models it has been observed to recruit progenitor cells and promote new capillary formation.

Studied In

Cardiac-repair and angiogenesis models
Soft-tissue and dermal wound closure
Inflammation and cell-migration signaling
Corneal and neural regeneration studies

Molecular Data

Formula:: C77H128N24O26
MW:: 1888.06 g/mol
Length:: 7 aa
CAS:: 77591-33-4
Sequence:: LKKTETQ

Peer-Reviewed Citations

Thymosin beta-4 promotes cardiac cell migration, survival and cardiac repair
Bock-Marquette I, et al. · Nature · 2004 · PMID 15525938
Thymosin beta-4 and its actin-binding activity in wound healing
Goldstein AL, et al. · Ann N Y Acad Sci · 2005 · PMID 16174795

Healing & Recovery· TB-4 Fragment (1-4 / LKKTETQ)

TB-500 Fragmented (Short Chain)

The active fragment of Thymosin Beta-4.

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In Plain English

This is the short, biologically active core sequence of Thymosin Beta-4. Researchers isolated the smallest fragment retaining wound-repair activity to study which part of the parent molecule is actually driving its effects.

Discovery & Backstory

Structure-function studies of TB-4 in the 2000s identified the N-terminal fragment as the region primarily responsible for actin binding and repair signaling — a common strategy in peptide research to pinpoint the 'active site.'

Mechanism of Action

The fragment retains the actin-binding motif of full-length TB-4 and has been studied for the same migration, angiogenesis, and anti-inflammatory pathways in preclinical models.

Studied In

Actin-cytoskeleton dynamics
Comparative wound-healing studies vs. full TB-4
Inflammatory pathway modulation

Molecular Data

Formula:: C38H68N10O14
MW:: 889.02 g/mol
Length:: 7 aa
Sequence:: LKKTETQ

Peer-Reviewed Citations

Thymosin beta 4: structural and functional studies of a wound-healing peptide
Goldstein AL, et al. · Expert Opin Biol Ther · 2012 · PMID 22188402

Growth & Performance· TH9507

Tesamorelin

The stabilized GHRH analog.

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In Plain English

Tesamorelin is a GHRH analog with a small chemical modification that makes it much more resistant to enzymatic breakdown. It's been extensively studied — including in large clinical trials — for its effects on visceral (deep abdominal) fat.

Discovery & Backstory

Developed by Theratechnologies in the 2000s. Landmark trials published in JAMA and NEJM examined its effects on visceral adipose tissue in specific clinical populations, making it one of the best-studied GHRH analogs in the peer-reviewed literature.

Mechanism of Action

Same pituitary GHRH-receptor activation as sermorelin, but with a hexenoic-acid N-terminal modification that resists degradation, producing a longer, more robust GH pulse profile.

Studied In

Visceral adipose-tissue reduction studies
Hepatic-fat and metabolic-marker research
IGF-1 and body-composition endpoints

Molecular Data

Formula:: C221H366N72O67S
MW:: 5195.85 g/mol
Length:: 44 aa
CAS:: 218949-48-5

Peer-Reviewed Citations

Effects of tesamorelin on visceral fat and liver fat in HIV-infected patients
Stanley TL, et al. · JAMA · 2014 · PMID 25027142

Weight Management· GIP/GLP-1 Twincretin

Tirzepatide

The dual GIP + GLP-1 agonist.

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In Plain English

Tirzepatide is a single molecule engineered to activate two gut-hormone receptors at once — GIP and GLP-1 — instead of just one. In clinical research it has shown significantly greater effects on glucose regulation and body-composition markers than earlier single-target compounds.

Discovery & Backstory

Developed at Eli Lilly and introduced in the SURPASS and SURMOUNT trials published between 2021 and 2023. The 'twincretin' concept came from decades of endocrinology research showing that GIP and GLP-1 work synergistically in the healthy gut.

Mechanism of Action

Balanced agonism of GIP and GLP-1 receptors amplifies insulin release, suppresses glucagon, delays gastric emptying, and engages central appetite pathways. Dual activation appears to produce additive metabolic effects compared to single-receptor agonism.

Studied In

Dual-incretin receptor signaling
Glucose homeostasis and insulin sensitivity
Adipose-tissue and hepatic-fat research
Cardiovascular outcome studies

Molecular Data

Formula:: C225H348N48O68
MW:: 4813.53 g/mol
Length:: 39 aa
CAS:: 2023788-19-2

Peer-Reviewed Citations

Tirzepatide once weekly for the treatment of obesity
Jastreboff AM, et al. · N Engl J Med · 2022 · PMID 35658024
Dual GIP and GLP-1 receptor agonism in type 2 diabetes
Frías JP, et al. · Lancet · 2021 · PMID 34186022

Healing & Recovery

Wolverine+ (BPC-157/TB-500/MGF)

The advanced recovery reference blend.

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In Plain English

Wolverine+ is a research reference blend built around the classic BPC-157 + TB-500 tissue-repair pairing, extended with additional signaling peptides. It's used in laboratory work exploring layered recovery-pathway signaling.

Discovery & Backstory

The 'Wolverine' concept in peptide-research communities describes stacks aimed at studying convergent recovery-pathway signaling — angiogenesis, cell migration, and connective-tissue remodeling in a single reference.

Mechanism of Action

The blend layers peptides investigated for distinct arms of the repair response: growth-factor upregulation, actin-cytoskeleton dynamics, and matrix remodeling. Preclinical literature exists for each component individually.

Studied In

Convergent tissue-repair signaling
Layered angiogenesis + migration studies
Preclinical recovery-pathway research

All content is provided for laboratory reference only. Citations are indexed in the U.S. National Library of Medicine. Nothing on this page constitutes medical advice, dosing guidance, or a claim of therapeutic effect in humans.

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